Table 2

Characteristics of small scale energy storage technologies.

Storage technology Power rating, MW Energy rating Response time Suitable storage
duration
Energy density, Wh/kg Power density, W/kg Operating temperature,  °C Self-discharge, %/day
Micro PHS 0–0.1 1–24 h+ s–min Hours–months 0.5–1.5     ≈0
Micro CAES Up to 1 1–24 h+ 5–15 min Hours–months 30–60     ≈0
Hydrogen fuel cell 0.001–50 s–24 h+ min Hours–months 800–104 500+   0.5–2
Metal air 0–0.01   s–24 h+ Hours–months       Very small
Solar fuels 0–10   1–24 h+ Hours–months       ≈0
Fly-wheels 0.002–20 15 s–15 min s   5–130 400–1600 –60 20–100
SMES 0.01–10 ms–5 min ms   0.5–5 500–2000   10–15
SCES 0.01–1 ms–1 h ms   0.1–15 0.1–10 –125 2–40
Lead-acid 0.001–50 s–3 h   Minutes–days 30–50 75–300   0.1–0.3
Li-ion 0.001–0.1 min–h   Minutes–days 75–250 150–315   0.1–0.3
NiCd 0.001–40 s–h   Minutes–days 40–60 150–300   0.2–0.6
NaS 0.5–50 s–h   Seconds–hours 150–240 90–230 300–350 20
ZEBRA 0.001–1 min–h   Seconds–hours 125 130–160 300 15
VRB 0.03–7 s–10 h ms Hours–months 75   0–40 0–10
ZnBr 0.05–2 s–10 h ms Hours–months 60–80 50–150   1
PSB 0.001–0.015   s–10 h Hours–months        
Sensible TES 0.001–280   1–8 h Hours–months 80–120     < 1
PCM 0.001–1     Minutes–months 50–150      
TCM 0.001–1     Minutes–days 120–250      
Storage technology Round-trip efficiency Life time, years Cycles Power cost, USD/kW Energy cost, USD/kWh Capital cost, UScent/kW
/cycle
O&M cost, USD/kWh
Micro PHS 75–85 50–100 2 × 104–5 × 104 550–4000 65–165 0.1–1.4 0.004
Micro CAES 42–54 25–40 5 × 103–2 × 104 440–1280 11–130 2–4  
Hydrogen fuel cell 20–50 5–15 103+ 610–1770 1–16 6000–20 000 0.0019–0.0153
Metal air              
Solar fuels              
Fly-wheels 85–95 20+ 105–107 110–330 1105–3870 3–25 ≈0.004
SMES 95 20 104 110–440 770–7740   0.001
SCES 85–98 20+ 104–106 110–440 330–4430 2–20 0.005
Lead-acid 3–15 100–1000 200–650 55–330 22–110 ≈50a  
Li-ion 5–15 103–104+ 700–3000 220–1990 16–110    
NiCd 15–20 1000–3000 350–1000 220–1105 22–110 ≈20a  
NaS 10–15 2000–4500 700–2000 220–995 9–22 ≈80a  
ZEBRA 10–14 2500+ 100–200 75–165 5–11    
VRB 5–20 104+ 2500 110–1105 5–88 ≈70a  
ZnBr 5–10 2000+ 500–1800 110–775 5–88    
PSB         5–88    
Sensible TES 10–20   500–3000   0.1–11    
PCM 5–15       11–57    
TCM 5–15   1000–3000   9–112    
a

USD/kW/year. Data taken from [1,2,4,6,10,2022]. Exchange rate between EUR and USD based on the average monthly rate in 2016, 1 EUR = 1.106 USD, data retrieved from http://www.x-rates.com/average/.

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