Open Access
Table 2
Characteristics of small scale energy storage technologies.
Storage technology | Power rating, MW | Energy rating | Response time | Suitable storage duration |
Energy density, Wh/kg | Power density, W/kg | Operating temperature, °C | Self-discharge, %/day |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Micro PHS | 0–0.1 | 1–24 h+ | s–min | Hours–months | 0.5–1.5 | ≈0 | ||
Micro CAES | Up to 1 | 1–24 h+ | 5–15 min | Hours–months | 30–60 | ≈0 | ||
Hydrogen fuel cell | 0.001–50 | s–24 h+ | min | Hours–months | 800–104 | 500+ | 0.5–2 | |
Metal air | 0–0.01 | s–24 h+ | Hours–months | Very small | ||||
Solar fuels | 0–10 | 1–24 h+ | Hours–months | ≈0 | ||||
Fly-wheels | 0.002–20 | 15 s–15 min | s | 5–130 | 400–1600 | –60 | 20–100 | |
SMES | 0.01–10 | ms–5 min | ms | 0.5–5 | 500–2000 | 10–15 | ||
SCES | 0.01–1 | ms–1 h | ms | 0.1–15 | 0.1–10 | –125 | 2–40 | |
Lead-acid | 0.001–50 | s–3 h | Minutes–days | 30–50 | 75–300 | 0.1–0.3 | ||
Li-ion | 0.001–0.1 | min–h | Minutes–days | 75–250 | 150–315 | 0.1–0.3 | ||
NiCd | 0.001–40 | s–h | Minutes–days | 40–60 | 150–300 | 0.2–0.6 | ||
NaS | 0.5–50 | s–h | Seconds–hours | 150–240 | 90–230 | 300–350 | 20 | |
ZEBRA | 0.001–1 | min–h | Seconds–hours | 125 | 130–160 | 300 | 15 | |
VRB | 0.03–7 | s–10 h | ms | Hours–months | 75 | 0–40 | 0–10 | |
ZnBr | 0.05–2 | s–10 h | ms | Hours–months | 60–80 | 50–150 | 1 | |
PSB | 0.001–0.015 | s–10 h | Hours–months | |||||
Sensible TES | 0.001–280 | 1–8 h | Hours–months | 80–120 | < 1 | |||
PCM | 0.001–1 | Minutes–months | 50–150 | |||||
TCM | 0.001–1 | Minutes–days | 120–250 |
Storage technology | Round-trip efficiency | Life time, years | Cycles | Power cost, USD/kW | Energy cost, USD/kWh | Capital cost, UScent/kW /cycle |
O&M cost, USD/kWh |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Micro PHS | 75–85 | 50–100 | 2 × 104–5 × 104 | 550–4000 | 65–165 | 0.1–1.4 | 0.004 |
Micro CAES | 42–54 | 25–40 | 5 × 103–2 × 104 | 440–1280 | 11–130 | 2–4 | |
Hydrogen fuel cell | 20–50 | 5–15 | 103+ | 610–1770 | 1–16 | 6000–20 000 | 0.0019–0.0153 |
Metal air | |||||||
Solar fuels | |||||||
Fly-wheels | 85–95 | 20+ | 105–107 | 110–330 | 1105–3870 | 3–25 | ≈0.004 |
SMES | 95 | 20 | 104 | 110–440 | 770–7740 | 0.001 | |
SCES | 85–98 | 20+ | 104–106 | 110–440 | 330–4430 | 2–20 | 0.005 |
Lead-acid | 3–15 | 100–1000 | 200–650 | 55–330 | 22–110 | ≈50a | |
Li-ion | 5–15 | 103–104+ | 700–3000 | 220–1990 | 16–110 | ||
NiCd | 15–20 | 1000–3000 | 350–1000 | 220–1105 | 22–110 | ≈20a | |
NaS | 10–15 | 2000–4500 | 700–2000 | 220–995 | 9–22 | ≈80a | |
ZEBRA | 10–14 | 2500+ | 100–200 | 75–165 | 5–11 | ||
VRB | 5–20 | 104+ | 2500 | 110–1105 | 5–88 | ≈70a | |
ZnBr | 5–10 | 2000+ | 500–1800 | 110–775 | 5–88 | ||
PSB | 5–88 | ||||||
Sensible TES | 10–20 | 500–3000 | 0.1–11 | ||||
PCM | 5–15 | 11–57 | |||||
TCM | 5–15 | 1000–3000 | 9–112 |
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